Cyber Kill Chain methodology

The “Cyber Kill Chain” methodology is a framework developed by Lockheed Martin to describe the stages of a cyberattack, from initial reconnaissance to data exfiltration. It helps organizations understand and detect malicious activities at various stages to improve their defensive measures. Here are the seven stages of the Cyber Kill Chain:

  1. Reconnaissance:
    • The attacker gathers information about the target organization. This can include identifying potential vulnerabilities, researching employee roles, and understanding the network structure. Footprinting
  2. Weaponization:
    • The attacker creates a deliverable payload (e.g., malware, exploit) by coupling malicious code with a legitimate file or software. This stage involves crafting the actual attack tools.
  3. Delivery:
    • The attacker transmits the weaponized payload to the target. Common methods include phishing emails, malicious attachments, compromised websites, or social engineering.
  4. Exploitation:
    • Once the payload reaches the target, it exploits a vulnerability to execute the malicious code. This could involve exploiting software vulnerabilities, leveraging social engineering, or using zero-day exploits.
  5. Installation:
    • The malicious payload installs a backdoor or other persistent mechanism on the victim’s system, allowing the attacker to maintain access.
  6. Command and Control (C2):
    • The attacker establishes a communication channel with the compromised system. This enables them to issue commands, exfiltrate data, or download additional tools.
  7. Actions on Objectives:
    • The attacker achieves their goals, which can include data theft, system disruption, financial gain, or espionage. This stage involves executing the final intent of the attack, such as exfiltrating data or causing damage.

By understanding these stages, organizations can develop more effective detection, prevention, and response strategies to disrupt the attacker’s progress at various points along the kill chain.

Detailed Overview of ADM in TOGAF 10

ADM (Architecture Development Method) is the core of the TOGAF framework, providing a structured process for developing and managing the lifecycle of enterprise architecture.

It consists of a series of iterative phases that guide the architect through the process of creating and maintaining an enterprise architecture.

Each phase is organized into:

  • Objective
  • Inputs
  • Steps
  • Output
TOGAF 10: Understanding the 7 Core Concepts

Introduction

TOGAF 10, the latest version of The Open Group Architecture Framework, is a crucial tool for IT companies and organizations looking to streamline their enterprise architecture practices. This article explores the seven core concepts of TOGAF 10, providing a comprehensive understanding of how they contribute to the efficient management and development of enterprise architecture.

1. Definition of Enterprise

In the context of TOGAF, the term “Enterprise” refers to any organization or group of organizations with a shared set of goals. This can include corporations, divisions within a company, partnerships, or any other entity with a defined mission. Enterprise Architecture (EA) involves the practice of analyzing, designing, planning, and implementing the architecture of the enterprise to achieve these objectives.

2. Architecture Domain (BDAT)

TOGAF divides enterprise architecture into four primary domains, collectively known as BDAT:

Business Architecture

Business Architecture focuses on business requirements. It outlines the structure and operation of an organization, including business goals, functions, processes, and organizational structure.

Data Architecture

Data Architecture pertains to the management of data, both physical and logical. It involves data assets, databases, data models, and the governance of data across the enterprise.

Application Architecture

Application Architecture describes individual applications and their interactions. It addresses software applications and their role in supporting business processes and functions.

Technology Architecture

Technology Architecture involves the IT infrastructure, including hardware, software, networks, and services. It ensures that the infrastructure supports the application and data requirements of the business.

3. ADM (Architecture Development Method)

The Architecture Development Method (ADM) is the core of TOGAF. It provides an iterative approach to developing and managing enterprise architecture, consisting of the following phases:

Preliminary Phase

Preparation and definition of the architectural framework.

Phase A: Architecture Vision

Establishing the architectural vision to align stakeholders and define the scope.

Phase B: Business Architecture

Developing the business architecture to understand the structure and operation of the organization.

Phase C: Information Systems Architectures

Creating data and application architectures that support business processes.

Phase D: Technology Architecture

Developing the technology architecture to ensure the IT infrastructure meets the needs of the business.

Phase E: Opportunities and Solutions

Identifying opportunities and solutions for improvement and innovation.

Phase F: Migration Planning

Planning the migration from the current state to the target architecture.

Phase G: Implementation Governance

Governing the implementation to ensure alignment with the architectural vision.

Phase H: Architecture Change Management

Managing changes to the architecture to maintain alignment with business goals.

Requirements Management

Continuous management of requirements to adapt to day-to-day changes.

4. Deliverables, Artifacts, and Building Blocks

Deliverables

Deliverables are formally released and approved outcomes of each phase, such as reports, architectural models, and design documentation. They provide specific input to subsequent phases or meet stakeholder needs.

Artifacts

Artifacts include models, diagrams, and documents that describe specific aspects of the architecture. They serve as means of communication and documentation for various stakeholders and can be catalogs, matrices, or diagrams.

Building Blocks

Building Blocks are reusable architecture components that can be combined to create more complex solutions, ensuring consistency and efficiency in architecture development.

5. Enterprise Continuum

The Enterprise Continuum is a conceptual model for classifying and organizing architectural artifacts. It includes:

Architecture Continuum

Covers architectures from specific to general, providing a framework for developing and maintaining a comprehensive set of architectures.

Solutions Continuum

Covers technology solutions and their implementations, ensuring alignment with the architectural vision and business needs.

6. The Architecture Repository

The Architecture Repository is a structured repository containing all information relevant to the enterprise architecture, including:

Metamodel Content

Metadata definitions that provide a framework for understanding and managing architecture data.

Architecture Landscape

Current, target, and transition architecture models that provide a comprehensive view of the enterprise architecture.

Reference Library

Reference models, guidelines, and best practices that support architecture development and governance.

Standards Information Base (SIB)

Architecture standards and guidelines that ensure consistency and compliance across the enterprise.

Governance Log

Logs of architectural governance decisions, ensuring transparency and accountability in architecture management.

7. Architecture Capability

Effective enterprise architecture requires a set of capabilities, including:

Organization

Organizational structures and roles that support the architecture.

Processes

Processes for developing, governing, and managing the architecture.

Information

Data and information necessary to support architectural decisions.

Tools

Software tools and technologies that facilitate architecture development and management.

Skills

Skills and training required for personnel involved in architecture, ensuring they have the expertise to develop and manage the architecture effectively.

FAQs

What is the purpose of TOGAF?

TOGAF provides a framework for developing, managing, and governing enterprise architecture, ensuring alignment with business goals and efficient use of IT resources.

How does TOGAF define an enterprise?

In TOGAF, an enterprise refers to any organization or group of organizations with a common set of goals, including corporations, divisions, partnerships, and other entities with a defined mission.

What are the four domains of enterprise architecture in TOGAF?

The four domains are Business Architecture, Data Architecture, Application Architecture, and Technology Architecture, collectively known as BDAT.

What is the ADM in TOGAF?

The Architecture Development Method (ADM) is the core of TOGAF, providing an iterative approach to developing and managing enterprise architecture through various phases.

What is the Enterprise Continuum in TOGAF?

The Enterprise Continuum is a conceptual model that helps classify and organize architectural artifacts, including the Architecture Continuum and Solutions Continuum.

Why is an Architecture Repository important?

The Architecture Repository is essential for storing all relevant information about the enterprise architecture, ensuring consistency, accessibility, and effective management.

Conclusion

Understanding the seven core concepts of TOGAF 10 is essential for any IT company or organization looking to streamline their enterprise architecture practices. By leveraging TOGAF’s comprehensive framework, businesses can ensure their architecture aligns with their strategic goals, improves efficiency, and supports innovation.

TOGAF 10 Request for Architecture Work

This is a document that is sent from the sponsoring organization to the architecture organization to trigger the start of an architecture development cycle. Requests for Architecture Work can be created as an output of the Preliminary Phase, a result of approved architecture Change Requests, or terms of reference for architecture work originating from migration planning.

Requests for Architecture Work typically include:

  • Organization sponsors
  • Organization’s mission statement
  • Business goals (and changes)
  • Strategic plans of the business
  • Time limits
  • Changes in the business environment
  • Organizational constraints
  • Budget information, financial constraints
  • External constraints, business constraints
  • Current business system description
  • Current architecture/IT system description
  • Description of developing organization
  • Description of resources available to developing organization
TOGAF ADM Phase A: Architecture Vision Objectives

Develop a high-level aspirational vision of the capabilities and business value to be delivered by the architecture.

Obtain approval for a Statement of Architecture Work (SoW) that defines a program of works to develop and deploy the architecture outlined in the Architecture Vision.

Secure the endorsement and support of key stakeholders for the proposed architecture project.

Create a clear and inspiring picture of what we want our organization to achieve and how our new systems (architecture) will help us get there.

High-Level: This means we are looking at the big picture, not getting bogged down in all the tiny details. It’s like planning a vacation by first deciding you want to go to the beach rather than deciding which specific hotel to stay at.

Aspirational Vision: Think of this as our dream or goal. It’s what we hope to accomplish. For example, “We want to be the best in customer service” or “We want to make our products available to customers faster than ever before.”

Capabilities: These are the new skills or functionalities we need. For example, “We need a new CRM system to better manage customer relationships” or “We need an online store that’s easy for customers to use.”

Business Value: This is about the benefits or improvements the new system will bring to our business. For example, “Increasing sales by reaching more customers online” or “Improving customer satisfaction by resolving issues faster.”

Putting it All Together

When we say “Develop a high-level aspirational vision of the capabilities and business value to be delivered by the architecture,” we mean:

  1. High-Level Plan: We’re outlining a broad plan without going into all the details.
  2. Aspirational Vision: We’re setting a clear and inspiring goal of what we want to achieve.
  3. Capabilities: We’re identifying the new tools, systems, or processes we need.
  4. Business Value: We’re explaining how these new tools or systems will benefit our business.
Example

Imagine you own a retail business and you want to improve how you serve your customers. Here’s how you might develop a high-level aspirational vision:

  1. High-Level Plan: “We want to create a seamless online shopping experience.”
  2. Aspirational Vision: “Our goal is to become the favorite online store for our customers by offering fast, easy, and enjoyable shopping.”
  3. Capabilities: “We need an easy-to-use website, a reliable inventory management system, and excellent customer support.”
  4. Business Value: “This will help us increase sales, keep customers happy, and encourage them to shop with us again.”

By creating this vision, you set a clear direction for what you want to achieve and how your new systems will help you get there. It guides all your future decisions and ensures everyone understands the goals and the benefits to the business.

Get official permission to start a detailed plan that describes the steps and tasks needed to create and implement the new systems we envisioned.

  1. Obtain Approval: This means we need to get the go-ahead from the decision-makers or leaders in the organization. It’s like asking your boss if you can proceed with a project.
  2. Statement of Architecture Work (SoW): This is a document that outlines what we’re going to do, how we’re going to do it, and who will be involved. It’s like a detailed plan or contract for the architecture project.
  3. Defines a Program of Works: This means the SoW will specify all the tasks and activities that need to be done. Think of it as a checklist of everything that needs to happen to build the new system.
  4. Develop and Deploy the Architecture: “Develop” means to create or build, and “deploy” means to put it into action or use. So, this part is about both making the new system and starting to use it.
  5. Outlined in the Architecture Vision: This refers to the high-level goals and plans we set out earlier (in the Architecture Vision). The SoW will detail how to achieve those goals.
Putting it All Together

When we say “Obtain approval for a Statement of Architecture Work (SoW) that defines a program of works to develop and deploy the architecture outlined in the Architecture Vision,” we mean:

  1. Get Permission: Ask the organization’s leaders to officially approve our detailed plan.
  2. Statement of Architecture Work (SoW): Create a document that explains what we’re going to do, how, and by whom.
  3. Program of Works: List all the steps and tasks needed to build and implement the new system.
  4. Develop and Deploy: Plan for both creating the new system and putting it into use.
  5. Architecture Vision: Make sure our detailed plan follows the big-picture goals we set earlier.
Example

Imagine you want to build a new website for your online store. Here’s how this process might look:

  1. Get Permission: You need your manager or stakeholders to agree to your plan to build a new website.
  2. SoW Document: Write a document that outlines:
    • What the new website will include (features, design, etc.).
    • How you will build it (steps, technologies, timeline).
    • Who will be involved (web developers, designers, etc.).
  3. Program of Works: Detail all the tasks, such as:
    • Design the homepage.
    • Develop the shopping cart feature.
    • Test the website.
    • Launch the website.
  4. Develop and Deploy: Plan for both creating the website (development) and making it live for customers to use (deployment).
  5. Follow the Vision: Ensure the new website aligns with the initial goals of improving user experience and increasing sales.

By following this process, you ensure that your project is well-planned, approved by the right people, and aligned with the overall goals of the organization.

INPUTS

Architecture reference materials

Non-Architectural inputs

Architectural inputs

  • Organizational Model for Enterprise Architecture
  • Tailored Architecture Framework
  • Populated Architecture Repo

STEPS

Establish architecture project

Identify stakeholders, concerns, and business requirements

confirm business goals, drivers and constraints

evaluate capabilities

assess readiness for transformation

define (architecture) scope

Confirm architecture principles (of the preliminaury phase), including business principles

Develop architectuer vision

Define target architecture value and KPI

Identify transformation risks and mitigation activities

Develop Statement of Architecture Work, secure approval

OUTPUTS

Approved Statement of Architecture Work

Refined statements of business principles, goals and drivers

Architecture principles

Capability assestment

Tailored architecture framework

Architecture vision

Draft architecture definition document

Communications plan

Additional content in the Architecture Repo

ARTIFACTS

Matrices: Stakeholder map matrix

Diagrams: Business model diagram, Business capability map, Value stream map, Value chain diagram, Solution concept diagram

TOGAF Preliminary Phase

The Preliminary Phase is essentially the foundation-setting stage of the ADM. It prepares the organization for the development and management of its enterprise architecture. This phase is crucial because it ensures that the architecture effort is aligned with the business context and strategic direction of the organization.

This Preliminary Phase is about defining “where, what, why, who, and how we do architecture” in the enterprise concerned.

Objectives of the Preliminary Phase

  1. Establish the Architecture Framework:
    • Tailor the architecture framework to the organization’s specific needs.
    • Define the scope of the enterprise architecture effort in terms of organizational breadth and depth.
  2. Obtain Commitment:
    • Secure agreement and commitment from senior management and stakeholders.
    • Communicate the importance and benefits of enterprise architecture to gain support.
  3. Establish the Architecture Capability:
    • Develop the architecture governance framework, including roles, responsibilities, and processes.
    • Define the organizational structure needed to support the architecture function.
  4. Define Architecture Principles:
    • Establish a set of guiding principles to ensure the architecture aligns with business goals and objectives.
    • These principles will govern the architecture work and ensure consistency across the organization.

Key Activities in the Preliminary Phase

Understanding the Organizational Context

  • Assess the Current State:
    • Evaluate the organization’s structure, culture, and existing processes.
    • Identify strategic drivers and key stakeholders influencing the architecture initiative.

Establishing the Architecture Framework

  • Tailor the TOGAF Framework:
    • Customize TOGAF elements to fit the specific needs of the organization.
    • Define the enterprise architecture metamodel, standards, and tools that will be used.

Architecture Governance

  • Develop Governance Framework:
    • Define decision-making processes, compliance mechanisms, and key performance indicators (KPIs).
    • Establish an Architecture Board or similar governance body to oversee the architecture work.

Defining Architecture Principles

  • Work with Stakeholders:
    • Develop a set of architecture principles covering business goals, IT alignment, interoperability, and scalability.
    • Document and communicate these principles effectively across the organization.

Setting Up the Architecture Team

  • Identify Skills and Resources:
    • Determine the skills and resources required for the architecture team.
    • Develop a training and capability development plan to ensure the team can effectively support the architecture effort.

INPUTS

These inputs help to understand the context, define the scope, and establish the necessary frameworks and governance structures. Here are the primary inputs for the Preliminary Phase

Reference Materials External to the Enterprise

  • The TOGAF Library
  • Other architecture framework(s), if required

Non-Architectural Inputs (Politics…)

  • Board strategies and board business plans, business strategy, IT strategy, business principles, business goals, and business drivers (ex. Migliorare la soddisfazione dei clienti, Espandere la quota di mercato, Ridurre i costi IT), when pre-existing
  • Major frameworks operating in the business; e.g., project/portfolio management
  • Governance and legal frameworks, including Architecture Governance strategy, when pre-existing
  • Architecture capability
  • Partnership and contract agreements

Architectural Inputs (Technical…)

Pre-existing models for operating an Enterprise Architecture Capability can be used as a baseline for the Preliminary Phase. Inputs would include:

  • Organizational Model for Enterprise Architecture (see the TOGAF Standard — Architecture Content), including:
    • Scope of organizations impacted
    • Maturity assessment, gaps, and resolution approach
    • Roles and responsibilities for architecture team(s)
    • Budget requirements
    • Governance and support strategy
  • Existing Architecture Framework, if any, including:
    • Architecture method
    • Architecture content
    • Configured and deployed tools
    • Architecture Principles
    • Architecture Repository

STEPS

1. Scope the Enterprise Organizations Impacted

  • Identify core enterprise (units) — those who are most affected and achieve most value from the work
  • Identify soft enterprise (units) — those who will see change to their capability and work with core units but are otherwise not directly affected
  • Identify extended enterprise (units) — those units outside the scoped enterprise who will be affected in their own Enterprise Architecture
  • Identify communities involved (enterprises) — those stakeholders who will be affected and who are in groups of communities
  • Identify governance involved, including legal frameworks and geographies (enterprises)

2. Confirm Governance and Support Frameworks

  • Establish the architecture governance framework that fits the organization’s requirements.
  • Assess the current governance and support models to determine necessary changes.
  • Understand how architectural material is governed, including standards, guidelines, models, and compliance reports.
  • Engage with stakeholders to ensure architecture touch-points and impacts are understood and agreed upon​​​​.

3. Define and Establish Enterprise Architecture Team and Organization

  • Determine existing enterprise and business capability
  • Conduct an Enterprise Architecture/business change maturity assessment, if required
  • Identify gaps in existing work areas
  • Allocate key roles and responsibilities for Enterprise Architecture Capability management and governance
  • Define requests for change to existing business programs and projects:
    • Inform existing Enterprise Architecture and IT architecture work of stakeholder requirements
    • Request assessment of impact on their plans and work
    • Identify common areas of interest
    • Identify any critical differences and conflicts of interest
    • Produce requests for change to stakeholder activities
  • Determine constraints on Enterprise Architecture work
  • Review and agree with sponsors and board
  • Assess budget requirements

4. Identify and Establish Architecture Principles

  • Define a set of architecture principles based on business principles, critical for setting the foundation for architecture governance.
  • Ensure principles are documented, current, and communicated effectively across the organization​​​​.

5. Tailor the TOGAF Framework and, if any, Other Selected Architecture Framework(s)

In this step, determine what tailoring of the TOGAF framework is required. Consider the need for:

  • Terminology Tailoring: architecture practitioners should use terminology that is generally understood across the enterpriseTailoring should produce an agreed terminology set for description of architectural content. Consideration should be given to the creation of an Enterprise Glossary, to be updated throughout the architecture process.
  • Process Tailoring: the TOGAF ADM provides a generic process for carrying out architecture Process tailoring provides the opportunity to remove tasks that are already carried out elsewhere in the organization, add organization-specific tasks (such as specific checkpoints), and to align the ADM processes to external process frameworks and touch-points. Key touch-points to be addressed would include:
    • Links to (project and service) portfolio management processes
    • Links to project lifecycle
    • Links to operations handover processes
    • Links to operational management processes (including configuration management, change management, and service management)
    • Links to procurement processes
  • Content Tailoring: using the TOGAF Architecture Content Framework and Enterprise Continuum as a basis, tailoring of content structure and classification approach allows adoption of third-party content frameworks and also allows for customization of the framework to support organization-specific requirements

6. Develop a Strategy and Implementation Plan for Tools and Techniques

  • Identify and implement tools and techniques to support the architecture capability, reflecting the stakeholders’ requirements and the formality level needed.
  • Ensure the tools strategy aligns with the architecture maturity level and organizational capabilities​​.

OUTPUT

ARTIFACTS

Principles catalog

Describe what a “good” solution or architecture should look like. Principles are used to evaluate and agree an outcome for architecture decision points. Principles are also used as a tool to assist in architectural governance of change initiatives.

Enterprise Continuum

L’Enterprise Continuum in TOGAF è una struttura concettuale che aiuta a organizzare e classificare gli artefatti dell’architettura aziendale. Puoi pensare ad esso come una sorta di “mappa” che aiuta gli architetti a navigare attraverso i vari componenti e artefatti dell’architettura.

In modo semplice, l’Enterprise Continuum divide gli artefatti in due categorie principali:

  1. Architectural Continuum (Continuum Architetturale): Questa parte si concentra sullo spettro degli artefatti dell’architettura, che vanno da quelli generici e riusabili a quelli specifici e personalizzati per un’organizzazione particolare. In altre parole, va da concetti e modelli generici a soluzioni specifiche.
  2. Solutions Continuum (Continuum delle Soluzioni): Questa parte riguarda l’evoluzione degli artefatti attraverso le varie implementazioni e iterazioni nel tempo. Include le soluzioni implementate, dalle più generiche alle più personalizzate, insieme alle relazioni tra di esse.

L’Enterprise Continuum è quindi uno strumento utile per gli architetti perché fornisce una struttura per organizzare e navigare attraverso l’ampio panorama delle informazioni e dei documenti dell’architettura aziendale. Aiuta a mantenere una visione chiara delle varie fasi e livelli di sviluppo dell’architettura, consentendo una migliore gestione e utilizzo delle risorse e delle conoscenze disponibili.

Secure Your Network: A Guide to Safe Protocols for Invulnerable Communication

In the vast realm of digital communication, ensuring that exchanged information across the network is secure is crucial. Many network protocols transmit data in plaintext, without any form of encryption, making them vulnerable to prying eyes. In this article, we will explore the importance of using secure protocols and provide recommended alternatives to safeguard your online communication.

The Risk of Clear Text Transmission

The transmission of information in clear text poses a significant security risk online. When data travels through the network without encryption, it becomes easily accessible to those employing “network sniffing.” This tactic relies on the use of software to inspect data packets as they traverse the network, allowing the extraction of sensitive text such as usernames and passwords.

Consequences of Network Sniffing

Network sniffing extends beyond intercepting login credentials; it can also reveal the content of documents and other files if transmitted through insecure protocols. The need to protect the confidentiality of information is crucial, and this can be achieved through adopting secure protocols for data transmission.

  1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) port 21→ SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol) port 22
  2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) port 80 → HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) port 443
  3. Telnet port 23 → SSH (Secure Shell) port 22
  4. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) port 143 → IMAPS (Internet Message Access Protocol Secure) port 993
  5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) port 25 → SMTPS (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Secure) port 587
  6. LDAP port 389 (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) → LDAPS port 636

Securing your network from intrusions is essential to ensure the safety of exchanged information online. Choosing secure protocols is the first step towards invulnerable communication. Be sure to implement the recommended alternatives to minimize risks associated with network sniffing and enjoy a secure and private online connection.

ESP32 and ESP8266 with Micropython

Flash and install firmware

ESP32

esptool.py --chip esp32 --port /dev/tty.usbserial-1410 --baud 460800 write_flash -z 0x1000 ./ESP32_GENERIC-20231005-v1.21.0.bin

ESP8266

Preliminary actions

Install esptool

download the firmware

https://micropython.org/download/ESP8266_GENERIC/

flash ESP8266

esptool.py --port /dev/tty.usbserial-0001 erase_flash

Install firmware

esptool.py --port /dev/tty.usbserial-0001 --baud 460800 write_flash --flash_size=detect 0 ./ESP8266_GENERIC-20231005-v1.21.0.bin

Unlocking the Power of Neural Networks: A Deeper Look

Today, we’re diving deeper into the fascinating world of neural networks, shedding light on some critical concepts.

Label and Features:

  • Label (output): Labels are the ultimate goals for our neural networks. They’re like the answers to a challenging question. When you show your AI a picture of a cat, the label would be “cat.” It’s what the network aims to predict.
  • Features (input): Think of features as the building blocks of your data. They’re like the clues that help the network understand and make predictions. In an image, features could be the whiskers, fur, and pointy ears that scream “cat.”

Example with Label (Used for Training):

When we train a neural network, we provide real data with both features (like the cat’s fur and whiskers) and labels (the “cat” tag). The network uses these paired examples to learn how to make predictions accurately. It’s like studying with answer keys to get better at a quiz.

Example without Label (Used for Testing):

For testing, we give our network real data (with features) but keep the labels hidden. The network makes predictions, and we see how well it does. This helps us evaluate its ability to work with new, unlabeled data.

Model:

The model is the brain behind the operation. It’s a mathematical representation of how the network should process data to produce the correct output (label). The model learns by tweaking its internal parameters, often referred to as “weights and biases.”

Regression vs. Classification:

In the world of machine learning, we have two main types of tasks: regression and classification.

  • Regression: This is like predicting a number, such as the price of a house given its size. The model finds a function to map inputs (features) to a continuous range of values.
  • Classification: Here, we’re assigning labels to data. It’s like deciding whether a given image is of a cat or a dog. The model sorts data into predefined categories.

Training and Loss:

Training is the phase where our neural network learns from examples. It fine-tunes its model to make better predictions. Loss measures how far off the network’s predictions are from the real labels. It’s like a report card telling the network what it needs to improve.

Linear Regression:

Linear regression is a fundamental technique in machine learning. It’s like drawing a straight line through data points to find the best fit. The goal is to minimize the squared loss, which measures how far each prediction is from the actual label.

The famous formula is 

y = mx + b

where y is the label (output), m (or sometimes w) is the wheight, x is the feature (input) and b is the bias

The linear regression model uses a loss function called squared loss (RSS), which quantifies the error between observations and predictions. This loss guides the model in adjusting its parameters (m and b) to get closer to the real labels. In essence, it helps the model become a pro at drawing those best-fit lines. Formula for squared loss is 

sum of all (label - prediction(x))2 ==> sum(y - (mx+b))2

The “adjusting” is an iterative phase. At each loop the model tries to reduce the loss applying a new value for m. The new weight value is of the weight plus (or minus, it depends if the loss is negative or positive) a value that will allow us to reach the 0 loss in an efficient way, that is in less iteration than possible. This iteration represents basically the learning rate.

Understanding these concepts is like unlocking the secret language of neural networks. They’re the tools and principles that underpin AI’s incredible capabilities. Stay curious and keep exploring this exciting world!